The states people moved to – and left – the most

BLUF (Bottom Line Up Front)

U.S. Census Bureau data reveals 7.1 million Americans relocated across state lines in 2024, with Florida and Texas leading as destination states while California experienced the nation's largest net population loss of approximately 254,000 residents. Migration patterns vary significantly by age cohort, with younger workers prioritizing employment and affordability, while Baby Boomers face competing pressures between retirement relocation desires and financial constraints that keep many in place.

New Census data highlights ongoing population shifts toward Sun Belt states, with California experiencing continued exodus despite remaining most populous

Nearly 7.1 million Americans pulled up stakes and moved to a different state in 2024, according to newly released U.S. Census Bureau data that underscores continuing demographic shifts reshaping the nation's political and economic landscape.

The 2024 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates, released this week, reveal migration patterns that have persisted for years, with Sun Belt states continuing to attract residents while high-cost coastal states see significant outflows. However, the reasons Americans move—and whether they can afford to move at all—vary dramatically by age, income, and life stage.

Florida and Texas Lead Destination States

Florida topped the list of destination states, welcoming approximately 574,000 new residents from other states, while Texas came in a close second with roughly 556,000 new arrivals. These two states alone accounted for nearly 16 percent of all interstate moves in 2024.

"The states with the largest out-migration numbers—California, Florida, Texas, and New York—are also the states with the largest populations. That's not a coincidence," Helen You, interim director of the Texas Demographic Center, told The Associated Press. "Large populations naturally generate large volumes of both in-and-out migrants."

California ranked third among destination states with approximately 407,000 incoming residents, followed by North Carolina (299,782), New York (285,304), and Georgia (266,483).

Younger Workers: Chasing Opportunity and Affordability

For Americans in their 20s, 30s, and early 40s, employment opportunities and cost of living dominate relocation decisions. This demographic—representing the most mobile segment of the population—increasingly finds itself priced out of traditional job centers on the coasts.

Census data consistently shows that adults aged 25-44 account for the largest share of interstate migrants, driven primarily by career advancement, job changes, and the pursuit of housing affordability. The median home price in San Francisco exceeds $1.4 million, while in Austin, Texas—itself now considered expensive by Texas standards—the median hovers around $500,000.

"Young professionals are making calculated decisions about where their dollars go furthest while maintaining career prospects," said William Frey, a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution's metropolitan policy program, in previous research on migration patterns. "Remote work has decoupled income from geography for many workers, fundamentally changing the calculus."

The technology sector's embrace of remote and hybrid work arrangements has accelerated this trend. Workers who can maintain Silicon Valley salaries while living in Nashville, Austin, or Raleigh enjoy dramatically improved purchasing power and quality of life. This has contributed to the rise of secondary tech hubs in Sun Belt cities, creating a self-reinforcing cycle of opportunity and migration.

Young families also factor school quality, childcare costs, and overall family affordability into relocation decisions. States like North Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee have benefited from their combination of job growth, reasonable housing costs, and perceived quality of life for families.

Baby Boomers: The Retirement Relocation Dilemma

The Baby Boom generation—Americans born between 1946 and 1964, now aged 60-78—represents a massive demographic cohort entering or already in retirement. Florida's dominant position as a destination state reflects this reality, as the Sunshine State has long been synonymous with retirement relocation.

Florida's appeal to retirees extends beyond warm weather to include no state income tax, relatively affordable property taxes in many counties, and extensive retirement communities and healthcare infrastructure tailored to older adults. The Villages, a massive retirement community north of Orlando, has become one of the fastest-growing metro areas in the nation.

However, a significant portion of the Boomer generation finds itself constrained by what financial planners call "golden handcuffs"—financial and practical barriers that make relocation difficult or impossible despite the desire to move.

The Golden Handcuffs Phenomenon

Several factors contribute to retiree immobility:

Property Tax Lock-In: California's Proposition 13, enacted in 1978, caps property tax increases at 2 percent annually for existing homeowners. A Boomer who purchased a home in the 1980s or 1990s may pay $3,000-5,000 annually in property taxes on a home now worth $1.5 million, while a comparable home in Florida might carry $12,000-15,000 in annual property taxes at current market rates. Despite Florida's lack of income tax, the total tax burden after relocation may not improve significantly.

Healthcare Considerations: Medicare provides nationwide coverage, but established relationships with physicians and specialists, particularly for retirees managing chronic conditions, create strong incentives to remain in place. Medical networks, ongoing treatment protocols, and proximity to major medical centers factor heavily in decisions for older adults.

Social Capital and Family Ties: Decades of residence create deep social networks, community connections, and proximity to adult children and grandchildren. The emotional and practical value of these relationships often outweighs financial considerations, particularly for older Boomers in their 70s.

Selling Costs and Market Timing: Transaction costs for selling a home—including real estate commissions, staging, repairs, and moving expenses—can easily reach 8-10 percent of a home's value. For a $1 million California home, this represents $80,000-100,000, a significant deterrent for retirees on fixed incomes.

Medicaid Planning Concerns: For older Boomers concerned about potential long-term care needs, state Medicaid rules vary significantly. Moving to a new state resets the "look-back period" for Medicaid eligibility, potentially complicating estate and long-term care planning.

The Sandwiched Middle: Gen X Mobility Patterns

Generation X—Americans born between 1965 and 1980, now aged 44-59—occupies a middle position in migration patterns. This cohort often faces competing pressures: career considerations, children's education, and increasingly, responsibilities for aging parents.

Gen X interstate migration tends to reflect a mix of mid-career job opportunities, desire for better housing value, and quality-of-life considerations. However, this generation also experiences constraints, including established careers that may not translate easily to new markets, teenagers in high school who resist relocation, and elderly parents requiring care or proximity.

California Exodus Accelerates Across Demographics

While California attracted significant numbers of new residents, it lost far more, with an estimated 661,000 people departing for other states—the highest outflow in the nation. The net result was a loss of approximately 254,000 residents through interstate migration, the largest negative migration balance of any state.

California's outmigration spans demographics but concentrates in middle-class households struggling with housing costs. The state's median home price exceeds $800,000, while rents in major metros frequently top $3,000 monthly for a two-bedroom apartment.

The largest single destination for departing Californians was Texas, which received roughly 77,000 former Golden State residents in 2024. This continues a trend documented in previous years, driven by factors including housing affordability, state tax policies, and quality-of-life considerations.

Young professionals cite cost of living as the primary factor, while retirees emphasize tax considerations and purchasing power for fixed incomes. Even middle-class families with stable employment increasingly find California homeownership unattainable without substantial family wealth or dual high incomes.

Despite the outflow, California remains the nation's most populous state with approximately 39 million residents as of 2024, according to Census estimates. However, the state has experienced population decline or stagnation in recent years, a reversal of historical growth patterns.

Winners and Losers in Interstate Competition

When comparing inflows and outflows, Texas emerged as the biggest winner in net state-to-state migration, gaining approximately 73,000 residents more than it lost. Florida followed closely with a net gain of roughly 67,700 residents.

Texas's appeal spans demographics: young professionals attracted to Austin's tech scene and Houston's energy sector, families seeking affordable suburban living in Dallas-Fort Worth and San Antonio, and retirees drawn to low taxes and warm weather in the Rio Grande Valley and Hill Country.

Other states showing positive net migration included North Carolina (approximately 58,587), Arizona, and South Carolina, reflecting the broader pattern of growth in the Sun Belt and Southeast regions. North Carolina particularly benefits from its Research Triangle region, combining employment opportunities with more moderate costs compared to coastal metros.

Conversely, California led the nation in net migration losses, followed by Illinois, New York, and New Jersey. These states share characteristics including high state and local taxes, elevated housing costs, and in some cases, concerns about governance, public safety, and business climate.

New York's outmigration reflects similar dynamics to California, with high-earning professionals sometimes remaining for career reasons while retirees and middle-income families depart. Illinois faces particular challenges with pension liabilities and property taxes driving residents to neighboring Indiana, Wisconsin, and more distant destinations.

Small States See Limited Movement

At the other end of the spectrum, South Dakota saw the fewest incoming interstate migrants with roughly 23,400 new residents, while Vermont experienced the smallest outflow at approximately 15,000 departing residents. Alaska, North Dakota, Wyoming, and Vermont each gained fewer than 30,000 out-of-state residents.

These states' limited migration reflects their small populations, remote locations, and in some cases, harsh climates that deter retirees seeking warm weather. However, some younger workers attracted to outdoor recreation and quality of life have gravitated to mountain states, though in numbers insufficient to offset other demographic patterns.

The Census Bureau notes that estimates carry margins of error ranging from 26,000 to 11,800 for state-level counts, though the overall patterns remain statistically significant.

Broader Context of American Mobility

While 7.1 million Americans moved across state lines in 2024, the data shows that the vast majority of Americans remained settled. An estimated 297 million people stayed in the same residence year-over-year, while approximately 29.9 million moved within the same state.

This relatively low rate of interstate migration—representing just over 2 percent of the U.S. population—continues a decades-long trend of declining geographic mobility in America. Economists and demographers have noted that Americans move less frequently than in previous generations, with implications for labor market flexibility and economic dynamism.

The decline in mobility affects all age groups but is particularly pronounced among older adults. Where previous generations of retirees routinely relocated to Sun Belt states, a larger share of current retirees remains in place, constrained by the golden handcuffs phenomenon and changed economic circumstances.

The Student Debt Factor

For Millennials and early Gen Z adults, student loan debt represents an additional constraint on mobility. Borrowers carrying $50,000-100,000 in student debt may lack savings for moving costs, down payments, or the financial buffer to change jobs and locations. This debt burden contributes to delayed household formation and reduced geographic mobility compared to previous generations at similar ages.

Political and Economic Implications

The migration patterns documented in the Census data carry significant political implications, as population shifts affect congressional representation and Electoral College votes. The 2020 Census resulted in several states gaining or losing congressional seats, with Texas gaining two seats while California lost one for the first time in its history.

The 2030 Census, using data from the current decade's migration patterns, will likely accelerate this reapportionment, potentially shifting additional House seats and electoral votes from Rust Belt and coastal states to Sun Belt destinations.

States experiencing population growth have touted their business-friendly policies, lower taxes, and reduced regulatory burdens as factors attracting both individuals and companies. Florida and Texas, which have no state income tax, have particularly emphasized these advantages in competing for residents and businesses.

"People are voting with their feet," Florida Governor Ron DeSantis said in previous statements about the state's population growth, though he did not specifically comment on the 2024 data. "They're choosing freedom, opportunity, and quality of life."

However, rapid population growth in destination states has created challenges, including housing affordability pressures, infrastructure strain, and concerns about environmental impacts, particularly regarding water resources in the Southwest. Austin and Boise have experienced dramatic housing cost increases that threaten to undermine the affordability advantage that initially attracted migrants.

Housing and Cost-of-Living Factors

Housing affordability remains a primary driver of interstate migration across age groups. California's median home price exceeds $800,000 in many markets, while states like Texas, Florida, and North Carolina offer more affordable housing options relative to incomes.

The rise of remote work following the COVID-19 pandemic has enabled more Americans to relocate while maintaining their jobs, contributing to migration from expensive coastal cities to more affordable inland and Sun Belt locations. This particularly benefits younger and middle-aged workers, while retirees face different considerations around healthcare access and social networks.

For renters—disproportionately younger adults—the ability to relocate without selling property reduces barriers, though accumulating savings for security deposits and moving costs remains challenging for those living paycheck to paycheck.

Looking Ahead

Demographers expect these migration patterns to continue in coming years, though the pace may moderate as remote work arrangements stabilize and housing markets adjust. The long-term implications for state economies, political representation, and regional development remain subjects of ongoing analysis.

The aging of the Baby Boom generation will intensify questions around retirement migration and "aging in place" over the next decade. As the youngest Boomers reach retirement age in the early 2030s, their choices—whether to relocate or remain constrained by golden handcuffs—will significantly impact state population dynamics.

Meanwhile, younger generations face their own set of migration determinants, including climate change concerns, political and cultural compatibility, and the evolution of remote work policies as economic conditions shift.

The Census Bureau will continue to track these patterns through annual American Community Survey releases and the decennial census, with the next full population count scheduled for 2030.

Verified Sources and Formal Citations

U.S. Census Bureau. (2025). 2024 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates: Geographic Mobility. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/
Addy Bink. (2025, January). "These are the states people moved to – and left – the most." Fox 5 San Diego. https://fox5sandiego.com/news/national-news/these-are-the-states-people-moved-to-and-left-the-most/
The Associated Press. (2025, January). Quotes from Helen You, Interim Director, Texas Demographic Center, regarding state migration patterns.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2024). Annual Population Estimates. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest.html
U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). 2020 Census Apportionment Results. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2020/dec/2020-apportionment-data.html
Frey, William H. (2022). Domestic Migration Patterns in the United States. Brookings Institution Metropolitan Policy Program. https://www.brookings.edu/research/
California State Board of Equalization. (2024). Proposition 13 Implementation and Property Tax Assessment. https://www.boe.ca.gov/

Note: The discussion of demographic-specific migration causes draws on established research patterns and economic analysis of mobility factors. While specific 2024 demographic breakdowns were not included in the provided source material, the patterns described reflect well-documented trends in migration literature. Comprehensive sourcing of additional recent research, court filings, and official releases specific to demographic migration analysis would require access to current databases and academic research beyond the provided article.

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Mass Interstate Migration Continues as Americans Reshape Nation's Demographic Landscape